Throughout the colonial period, most French had enjoyed their privileged status and could not easily change the habits fostered by their colonial lifestyle. Some essential goods began to be rationed around this time, even for the French, who despised queuing with the local population. Despite such limitations on everyday contact, the new measures launched by the colonial authorities had the effect of stimulating the identity of the Vietnamese population.
In particular, the youth movements that unfolded on a large scale during this time resulted in outcomes that the French had not expected. Through physical and mental discipline, they were actively trained to sustain the future of the Vichy regime, and this youth movement was introduced into Indochina Raffin By February , around about six hundred thousand young people were participating in the youth movement in Indochina Raffin , 5.
Connected to this youth movement was the popularity of sports events. In light of this large-scale youth movement developed by the French, the Japanese asked the French colonial authorities for permission to also compete in certain athletic events, such as swimming and gymnastics, two sports in which the Japanese excelled. However, seeking to monopolize the attention of youth in Indochina, the French refused the request obliquely, permitting Japanese participation only in events like bicycling and pelota, in which they had little experience.
Soon thereafter, the French colonial authorities notified their regional administrators to never accept the Japanese demand to participate in sporting events without the permission of the central government, signifying the exclusion of Japan from the youth movement Ducoroy , — Some Japanese were personally invited to and participated in the activities of Vietnamese students, [58] but there was no organized participation prior to the futsuinshori in March All of these new activities for the indigenous youth—the disciplining of the body, the constant group gatherings, the gymnastics and contests, the marching and scouting—encouraged unity and discipline, kindling their political awareness.
Weakness or strength, it depends on you. Everyone, reflect on these words. Maurice Ducoroy, chief administrator for the youth movement, later admitted that he had recognized the effect this movement would have on the Vietnamese but saw no other way of keeping the youths on the French side and away from Japanese influence.
The complex situation discussed in this article concluded with the futsuinshori on March 9, As it became clear in that the Axis powers were in an unfavorable situation, the possibility of a futsuinshori began to be discussed in Tokyo that fall. Although the Japanese military acknowledged the need for a coup, its implementation was postponed to allow for a full focus on the Philippines campaign. But the movement was dissolved in by the Japanese government, which prioritized its relationship with France Shiraishi Although the French and the Japanese in Indochina had minor conflicts at times, they coexisted while minimizing friction as they prioritized their respective interests.
They also explored ways to interact with the Vietnamese, because both foreign groups perceived that gaining local support was a key element determining the fate of their rule and occupation.
Some Japanese protected and supported Vietnamese nationalists, but such initiatives inevitably ended up being half-hearted due to the national policy of seihitsuhoji. By contrast, the French tried to approach the Vietnamese based on Vichy ideology, and such new policies had the effect of stimulating their national identity.
Thus, the relationships among France, Japan, and Vietnam were constrained due to the intrinsic contradictions of Franco-Japanese coexistence, as well as new developments resulting from the stimulating effect they had on each other. Meanwhile, the Viet Minh steadily expanded the scope of its activities, taking advantage of the turbulent period when Japanese troops were stationed in Indochina, and gained the support of the population, which suffered under the worsening living conditions caused by Franco-Japanese coexistence.
The French system of control was terminated with the futsuinshori in March , but Japan had little capability to collect information about Viet Minh activities, which allowed the Viet Minh to decisively expand its influence during this power vacuum. France had lost its suzerainty and, in endeavoring to reestablish its rule in Indochina after the war, it sought to restore a Republican France.
In doing so, the new French government denied the previous state of coexistence between Vichy France and Japan, emphasizing that the French had resisted Japanese rule during those five years Namba By April , both the British and Chinese militaries had withdrawn from Indochina, and France started a full-scale comeback, dispatching more and more troops. The Viet Minh reacted furiously to the return of France, and as a result, the First Indochinese War broke out at the end of France failed to reestablish stable control of Indochina and was forced to end the conflict, withdrawing entirely in As we have seen, therefore, the beginning of the end of French rule can be traced back to this decisive period of Franco-Japanese coexistence during the Second World War.
Akagi Kanji. Paris: L. Fournier et Cie. Brocheux, Pierre, and Paul Isoart, eds. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. Ducoroy, Maurice. Ma trahison en Indochine [My betrayal in Indochina].
Freud, Benjamin. Hara Terushi. Shosai no mado [Window of study] 19— Gunji shigaku [Journal of military history] 45— Jennings, Eric. Berkeley: University of California Press. Komatsu Kiyoshi. Tokyo: Rokko shuppan. Larcher-Goscha, Agathe, and Daniel Denis. Futsuinn seifu no tai annannjinn seisaku [The Vietnamese policy of the French government].
Marr, David. Vietnam The Quest for Power. Michelin, Franc. Murakami, Sachiko. Paris: Kartala. Nasu Kunio. Nitz, Kiyoko Kurusu. Raffin, Anne. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Shiraishi Masaya. Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku shuppan. Shiraishi Masaya and Furuta Motoo.
Tabuchi Yukichika. Takatsu Shigeru. Takeuchi Fusashi. Paris: Armand Colin. C-2, C Tran, My-Van. Paris: Les Indes Savantes. Paris: Riveneuve Editions. Many people in Cambodia who helped the Khmer Rouge against the Lon Nol government thought they were fighting for the restoration of Sihanouk.
By , with the Lon Nol government running out of ammunition, it was clear that it was only a matter of time before the government would collapse.
The Khmer Rouge carried out a radical program that included isolating the country from all foreign influences; closing schools, hospitals, and factories, abolishing banking, finance, and currency; outlawing all religions; confiscating all private property; and relocating people from urban areas to collective farms where forced labor was widespread.
The Khmer Rouge attempted to turn Cambodia into a classless society by depopulating cities. The entire population was forced to become farmers in labor camps. The total lack of agricultural knowledge by the former city dwellers made famine inevitable.
Rural dwellers were often unsympathetic or too frightened to assist them. The Khmer Rouge forced people to work for 12 hours, without adequate rest or food. These actions resulted in massive deaths through executions, work exhaustion, illness, and starvation. Money was abolished, books were burned, and teachers, merchants, and almost the entire intellectual elite of the country were murdered to make the agricultural communism as Pol Pot envisioned it a reality. The planned relocation to the countryside resulted in the complete halting of almost all economic activity.
All religion was banned. Any people seen taking part in religious rituals or services were executed. Thousands of Buddhists, Muslims, and Christians were killed for exercising their beliefs.
Family relationships not sanctioned by the state were also banned and family members could be put to death for communicating with each other. Married couples were only allowed to visit each other on a limited basis. If people were seen engaged in sexual activity, they would be killed immediately. In many cases, family members were relocated to different parts of the country with all postal and telephone services abolished. Almost all freedom to travel was abolished.
Almost all privacy was eliminated. People were not even allowed to eat in privacy. Instead, they were required to eat with everyone in the commune. In , Pol Pot, fearing a Vietnamese attack, ordered a pre-emptive invasion of Vietnam. At the end of the same year, the Vietnamese armed forces, along with the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation, an organization that included many dissatisfied former Khmer Rouge members, invaded Cambodia and captured Phnom Penh in January At the same time, the Khmer Rouge retreated west and continued to control certain areas near the Thai border for the next decade.
The Khmer Rouge survived into the s as a resistance movement operating in western Cambodia from bases in Thailand. In , following a peace agreement, Pol Pot formally dissolved the organization. He died in , having never been put on trial. Today, Cambodia is officially a multiparty democracy but in reality, it is a communist-party state dominated by Prime Minister Hun Sen, a recast Khmer Rouge official in power since Those who were convicted of treason were taken to a top-secret prison called S The prisoners were rarely given food and, as a result, many people died of starvation.
Others died from the severe physical mutilation caused by torture. Modern research has located 20, mass graves from the Khmer Rouge era all over Cambodia. Various studies have estimated the death toll at between , and 3 million, most commonly between 1.
An additional , Cambodians starved to death between and , largely as a result of the after-effects of Khmer Rouge policy. The Khmer Rouge regime targeted various ethnic groups during the genocide, forcibly relocated minority groups, and banned the use of minority languages.
Because of the intense opposition to the Vietnam War, particularly among Western intellectuals, many Western scholars denied the genocide perpetrated by the Khmer Rouge regime. Despite the eye-witness accounts by journalists prior to their expulsion during the first few days of Khmer Rouge rule and the later testimony of refugees, many academics in the United States, United Kingdom, France, Australia, and other countries portrayed the Khmer Rouge favorably or at least were skeptical about the stories of Khmer Rouge atrocities.
None of them, however, were allowed to visit Cambodia under Khmer Rouge rule and few actually talked to the refugees whose stories they believed to be exaggerated or false. Some Western scholars believed that the Khmer Rouge would free Cambodia from colonialism, capitalism, and the ravages of American bombing and invasion during the Vietnam War. With the takeover of Cambodia by Vietnam in and the discovery of incontestable evidence, the Khmer Rouge atrocities proved to be entirely accurate.
Some former enthusiasts for the Khmer Rouge recanted their previous views, others diverted their interest to other issues, and a few continued to defend the Khmer Rouge. A few months before his death in , Nate Thayer interviewed Pol Pot.
During the interview, Pol Pot stated that he had a clear conscience and denied responsible for the genocide. In , the Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen passed legislation that makes the denial of the Cambodian genocide and other war crimes committed by the Khmer Rouge illegal. Privacy Policy. Skip to main content. Search for:. French Indochina was designated as a colony of economic exploitation by the French government. Funding for the colonial government came by means of taxes on local populations and the French government established a near monopoly on the trade of opium, salt, and rice alcohol.
In , colonial administration of French Indochina passed to the Vichy French government. In September , Japan launched its invasion of French Indochina. Indochinese communists set up hidden headquarters in and Ho Chi Minh, a Vietnamese communist leader, returned to Vietnam from China to lead the Viet Minh independence movement.
In March , the Japanese took direct control of Vietnam. After the Japanese surrendered in August , the Viet Minh immediately launched the insurrection the August Revolution.
However, the Viet Minh faced various problems in the southern part of the country, where it had been unable to establish the same degree of control.
The reached accord, which called for a referendum to determine whether the south would rejoin the rest of the country or remain a separate French territory, left the fate of former Cochinchina in flux. Negotiations broke down over the fate of southern Vietnam. In , the French endorsed the unity of Laos as a constitutional monarchy within the French Union. In Cambodia, King Sihanouk reluctantly proclaimed a new constitution in Key Terms Khmer Issarak : A loosely structured anti-French and anti-colonial independence movement in Cambodia, formed around and composed of several factions, each with its own leader.
Most of its bands fought actively from to , when Cambodia gained independence. The initial objective of the movement was to fight against the French to gain independence.
A grouping of the three Vietnamese regions of Tonkin north , Annam center , and Cochinchina south with Cambodia was formed in Viet Minh : A national independence coalition formed in with the initial goal to seek independence for Vietnam from the French Empire.
From to , while the regime was the nominal government of France as a whole, Germany militarily occupied northern France and the state was a de facto client and puppet of Nazi Germany.
Japanese troops on bicycles advance into Saigon, ca. The uprising in capital Hanoi on August 19, Learning Objectives Outline the path to independence in French Indochina. Japanese forces south of that line surrendered to him and those to the north surrendered to Chiang Kai-shek.
Laos witnessed tensions between pro-independence and pro-French movements. The Franco-Lao General Convention of sought appeasement by establishing the Kingdom of Laos a quasi-independent constitutional monarchy within the French Union. In additional powers were granted. The French were able to reimpose the colonial administration in Cambodia in October Most of the fighting took place in Tonkin in Northern Vietnam, although the conflict engulfed the entire country and also extended into the neighboring French Indochina protectorates of Laos and Cambodia.
Geneva Conference : A conference among several nations that took place in Geneva, Switzerland, to settle outstanding issues resulting from the Korean War and discuss the possibility of restoring peace in Indochina. These included the countries that contributed troops to the United Nations forces in the Korean War, and countries that participated in the resolution of the First Indochina War between France and the Viet Minh.
As a result of the war, France ceded certain provinces from Cambodia and Laos to Thailand. French Foreign Legion patrol question a suspected member of the Viet Minh. Learning Objectives List the key points of the Geneva Agreements. Its goal was to settle outstanding issues resulting from the Korean War and discuss the possibility of restoring peace in Indochina following the First Indochina War.
On Indochina, the conference produced a set of documents known as the Geneva Accords. Two Vietnamese delegations, one from the communist North and one from the pro-Western South, were also divided on the question of the future of Vietnam. Lengthy negotiations revolved around the questions of the division vs.
On July 20, the remaining outstanding issues were resolved as the parties agreed that the partition line should be at the 17th parallel and that the elections for reunification should be in July , two years after the ceasefire.
A 3-mile 4. The International Control Commission, comprising Canada, Poland, and India as chair, was established to monitor the ceasefire. North Vietnamese, especially Catholics, intellectuals, business people, land owners, anti-communist democrats, and members of the middle-class, moved south of the Accords-mandated ceasefire line.
Diem refused to hold the national elections, citing that the South did not sign and thus was not bound to the Geneva Accords. North Vietnam violated the Geneva Accords by failing to fully withdraw Viet Minh troops from South Vietnam, stifling the movement of North Vietnamese refugees, and conducting a massive military build-up. Il controllo del Tonchino e l'utilizzo degli aeroporti locali permise inoltre ai giapponesi di avere nuove basi di partenza per gli attacchi alle roccaforti cinesi.
Insediatisi inizialmente nel solo Tonchino, i giapponesi invasero anche il sud dell'Indocina francese nell'estate del Fu la base di partenza per invadere Thailandia, Malesia e Birmania allo scoppio della guerra del Pacifico nel dicembre L'occupazione si sarebbe protratta fino alla fine del conflitto. Military Wiki Explore. Popular pages. Project maintenance. Register Don't have an account? Japanese invasion of French Indochina. Edit source History Talk 0. Japanese Offensives, — Pacific War.
Second Sino-Japanese War. Vietnam C. Hubei S. Henan W. Hebei Shanggao S. Hubei N.
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